Expert System Industry In China

The synthetic intelligence industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms highlighting science and technology as the nation’s main efficient force.

The initial phases of China’s AI advancement were slow and experienced significant obstacles due to lack of resources and talent. At the beginning China lagged many Western nations in regards to AI development. A bulk of the research study was led by researchers who had actually received greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of the People’s Republic of China has gradually developed a national agenda for synthetic intelligence development and became among the leading nations in expert system research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to become a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of «national AI teams» including fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each company needs to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s rapid AI development has actually considerably affected Chinese society in lots of locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and production are the top markets that would be the most affected by more AI implementation.

The personal sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of elements as there are couple of present existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law addressing AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations planned to limit China’s access to sophisticated computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship program on the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and development did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers introduced AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s federal government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further providing federal government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research publication on artificial intelligence was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have actually become part of China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study jobs has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy concern for the development of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was also pointed out in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese achievements in the field of artificial intelligence. The first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion corresponded with the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the «Chinese Intelligence Year,» a substantial milestone in China’s development of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued «A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan» (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a tactical technology that has become a «focus of worldwide competitors». [14]:2 The document prompted substantial investment in a number of tactical locations associated with AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the occasion of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the «transferability of social resources» in between financial and military ends is an important part to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,»synthetic intelligence plus» was proposed to be elevated to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year witnessed the introduction of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council mentioned the requirement for enormous talent acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, as well as public and personal investments. [14] Some of the stated inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI method include the potential of expert system for commercial transformation, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the emergence of large language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on fundamental generative AI services security requirements, including specifications for data collection and model training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy dialogue with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed issue over AI security threats, including abuse of data or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began using news anchors produced with generative expert system to deliver phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which plans to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s new «AI Tigers». [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese technology firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be critical to the future of international military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make essential contributions to basic AI theory and to solidify its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being «the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial change» by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have developed a «mature new-generation AI theory and technology system.» [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government «seeks to combine state preparation and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market protections, creating uneven advantages as they expand offshore.» [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a top research concern and ranks AI first amongst «frontier industries» that the Chinese government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector frequently supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI funding primarily concentrated on innovative and applied research. [38] The federal government financing also supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research revealed that, while China is massively buying all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to national assistance on establishing China’s modern industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and regional commercial development and ecosystem. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, greatly focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A lot of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and worldwide partnerships and projects with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI scientists had finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and imposing obligations on AI companies, the general method to its regulation is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population produces a massive quantity of accessible information for companies and scientists, which uses an important advantage in the race of big data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of internet users, generating substantial quantities of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is one of the most extensively employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of information from its residents assists further train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to further AI R&D however also offers tremendous financial possible attracting both worldwide and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic development of the info and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets over the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s biggest exporter of facial recognition technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft measures mentioning that tech business will be obligated to guarantee AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects copyright rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal duty for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content may not «prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.» [51] Before releasing a big language model to the general public, companies must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the model refuses to answer particular concerns associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries including training information sets typically used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies regional business with training information that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually warned that the Chinese federal government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political issues. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese synthetic intelligence design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to respond to questions connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic effect

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term financial development. In the past, standard markets in China have actually fought with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional expenses are expected to minimize while an increase in performance creates revenue growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to conquer adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of properly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees may be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development since of rising demands for laborers with sophisticated abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic development may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is focused in coastal areas instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to build a «first-rate» military by «intelligentization» with a particular concentrate on the use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is looking into numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards revealed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is largely affected by China’s observation of U.S. plans for defense innovation and worries of a widening «generational space» in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China intends to use AI for exploiting large troves of intelligence, generating a typical operating image, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which looks for to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice assistance, software application, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of boundaries exist in between Chinese industrial companies, university research labs, the military, and the main government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct methods of guiding AI advancement priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To even more enhance these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is intended to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of information identifying to produce the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily pertinent AI applications, possibly approving it lawful access to U.S. technology and copyright. [69] Chinese equity capital investment in U.S. AI business in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, «particularly those from rival or adversarial countries,» from buying U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. national security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, including «microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.» [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its design use prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly since China faces obstacles in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the data researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the very same percentage of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China especially wish to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the first kids’s curriculum in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user protection, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI concepts requiring necessary needs in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and many nationwide governments have actually developed legislation attending to information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to deal with brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulative structure categorizing all type of data collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech business in China are required to classify their data into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific standards on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual residential or commercial property claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and applies appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology business might erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that «increasing celebration management, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary space of judges are intentional goals of SCR [clever court reform]» [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage personal tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as «AI champions». [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language model Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s new «AI Tigers» in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to international AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained causes of China’s anxiety towards securing an international technological supremacy – China missed both industrial revolutions, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that stemmed in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to make the most of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s «rightful» location and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A short article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that «Chinese federal government authorities demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and worldwide security. This consists of understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,» and suggested that «the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China» and «funding, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required modification.» [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: «China may have unparalleled resources and enormous untapped potential, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s progress, it would be wise for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research and education. » [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has stunted the advancement of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI creates difficulties for holistic national security, including the threats that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing results on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause greater oppression of workers and more severe social issues. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the development of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in greater capital accumulation and political power in less financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the primary accountable actor in the location of generative AI (creating new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI risks intensifying military competitors between countries which the impact of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one nation but will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential threat from synthetic intelligence have actually occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is usually optimistic relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study conducted throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI exceed the risks, the highest of any nation in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university trainees discovered that 80% agreed or highly agreed that AI will do more excellent than harm for society, and 31% thought it should be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively used AI facial recognition has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to identify Uyghurs is «the first known example of a federal government intentionally utilizing expert system for racial profiling,» [95] which is stated to be «among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.» [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment innovation, particularly by local municipal authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of artificial intelligence companies
Regulation of synthetic intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.